PL EN
PAPERS
Socketed Axes in the Bogaczewo and Sudovian Cultures
 
 
More details
Hide details
1
Instytut Archeologii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, ul. Krakowskie Przedmieście 26/28, 00-927 Warszawa
 
 
Publication date: 2016-12-31
 
 
Wiadomości Archeologiczne 2016;LXVII(67):37-64
 
KEYWORDS
TOPICS
ABSTRACT
Socketed axes are a well-documented category of finds in the Balt territory during the Roman Period, the Migration Period, and the Early Middle Ages. They have their direct prototypes in the Early Iron Age in the West Balt Barrow Culture, as indicated by their substantial size and morphology, especially the bulge of the socket and the way the edge tapers to the axe base (Fig. 1). Socketed axes recorded in the Bogaczewo and Sudovian Cultures (List 1) have sockets of different depth, usually reaching the base of the edge; the socket end is usually wedge-shaped or flat. The sockets are round in cross-section and carefully finished, although sometimes a longitudinal seam is noticeable. None retain horizontal rivets or nails used to fasten the handle. The length of the axes ranges between 10 and 16 cm, socket diameter – between 2.3 and 4.4 cm. The blade is flared out on both sides, usually symmetrically (this does not apply to the majority of the later finds from Lithuania). Adzes Some finds are distinguished from socketed axes by the transverse asymmetry of the working edge, i.e., the fact that the tool is visibly flattened on its outer side (the edge flares on one side only), as well as the fact that the working part is bent outwards in its central part which identifies them as wood working tools – adzes (List 2). Also the fact that the socket is square in cross-section suggests an adze: this kind of hafting is more secure as it prevents the tool from revolving during work. It seems that this was much more probable for smaller tools which were more susceptible to tensions occurring during repeated revolving actions, which may take place when working wood, e.g., when gouging. This does not mean that a round socket prevented the tool from being used as an adze. Some adzes have unfinished sockets, or even ones incomplete in their bottom part: apparently, this was due to their careless manufacture. Quite often the edge is asymmetrical and hence the top part is shaped unevenly. The adzes made by the Balts were also quite small, not exceeding 10 cm in length. This is true and concerns also of the majority of known ‘barbarian’ adzes from the Roman Period. Longer specimens with symmetrical edges, and sometimes, round-sectioned sockets are very rare, e.g., the two finds from sacrificial lake site on Lake Lubanowo, Gryfino County in the territory of the Lubusz Group and the adze from the bog site at Żarnowiec, Puck County, attributed to the Wielbark Culture. Based on the described morphological attributes nine finds from the Bogaczewo Culture area have been identified as adzes (Fig. 2:a–c; List 2:1–6). They have quadrangular sockets, often unclosed (Fig. 2:c; List 2:4.1, 2:5). The asymmetry is sometimes so pronounced that the tool definitely cannot have been used for cutting but only for gouging (List 2:4.2). The Bogaczewo Culture adzes differ from socketed axes by their significantly smaller length, which is usually 7–8 cm. Another characteristic feature useful in woodworking is also the fan-shaped edge. The context of discovery of these tools does not discount their being adzes: they have been found together with weapons (Fig. 2:a.c; List 2:1, 2:3, 2:5, 2:6) but also in assemblages with weapons and a plane (List 2:4.3), or without weapons, but with a plane (List 2:4.2). Naturally, they may have been used for combat, but it is rather a secondary function. Adzes have been recorded also the Sudovian Culture at Szwajcaria (Fig. 2:d–f, 3). They are quite small (their length 8.5, 9.8 and 11.3 cm) and light (resp., 0.13, 0.09 and 0.12 kg, whereas most axes weigh more than 0.25 kg); with the asymmetry of the edge visible from the side and a polygonal socket. Socketed adzes continue practically in an unchanged form in, i.a., the La Tène, Pre-Roman and Roman Periods in different cultural units of West, Central and North Europe. They are documented for an exceptionally broad chronological and territorial spectrum and may be considered a very popular form of a woodworking tool in the Iron Age. At present their dating in the Bogaczewo and Sudovian Cultures takes in the mature phase of the Early Roman and the beginning of the Younger Roman Period but this may be changed by future research. Typology and chronology of socketed axes Socketed axes from the Bogaczewo Culture (Fig. 6) have sockets of a different depth, but usually reaching to the beginning of the working edge, which is either wedge-shaped or flat. The length of the axe heads ranges between 10 and 14 cm. They may be divided into three types. Type I includes four specimens with a massive socket, clearly thicker in its central part, with a waist between the socket and the edge, which is fan-shaped (Fig. 4; List 1:13.2). Type II includes eight forms similar to those of Group I but with an evenly tapering socket to a well-defined edge giving the artefact an hour-glass shape (Fig. 5:a–c; List 1:4, 1:5, 1:6.4, 1:9, 1:11.1, 1:16). Type III includes two axes with parallel or almost parallel walls of the socket, with the edge gently sloping from the socket; in both specimens the entrance of the socket was slanting, which can, however, be considered as a distinctive feature (Fig. 5:d.e). In some cases the identification as type (II/III) is only tentative (List 1:10, 1:11.2), in others – unfeasible due to the lack of sufficient data (List 1:2, 1:3, 1:8, 1:14, 1:15). Some of the axes retain traces of production in the form of a seam which proves that the iron was bent to form the socket (see Fig. 4:a, 5:d). Based on the collected material it may be assumed that the form of the socketed axes did not change much in time. So far they have been discovered in assemblages dated to phases B1b–B2a (List 1:11.1), B1c–B2a (Fig. 5:b), B2 (Fig. 5:e), B2b (List 1:13.2) and B2b–B2/C1 (List 1:15). At present it does not seem feasible to narrow down the dating of the respective groups of socketed axes, although it may be supposed that type I, massive specimens with sockets of a large diameter, derives directly from forms known in the West Balt Barrow Culture (Fig. 1:b.c) where similar axes have been found. In each case the chronology may be broader and the absence of respective forms in different periods may be due to the insufficient investigation of settlements, but also to the ‘filtering’ by the burial rites. The latter is associated with the discontinuation of the practice of placing weapons in graves in the Bogaczewo Culture in the mature phase of the Younger Roman Period, probably under the influence of the Wielbark Culture burial rites. In comparison to the finds from Bogaczewo Culture, the axes recorded in the Sudovian Culture have a broader spectrum of dimensions: besides the smaller forms, ranging from 10 to 14 cm, there are substantially larger specimens: 15.9 cm (Fig. 7:d) and 17.5 cm (Fig. 7:e; also List 1:17.2). Also the morphology of the axes differs. So far no finds of type I axes have been made in the Sudovian Culture. The unthickened sockets and generally slimmer shape may have been due to the chronological, not only cultural, differences, however, due to the scarcity of the well-dated assemblages from the Bogaczewo Culture, this observation must remain hypothetical, and may be verified by future studies. The Sudovian Culture has yielded two specimens of type II (List 1:18, 1:21). The waist in the socket marking out the beginning of the edge is not as prominent in axes type II as in the specimens from the Bogaczewo Culture. For that reason three axes were attributed to type II/III (Fig. 7:a; also List 1:17.1 & 2, 1:19.3). It should be noted in one specimen has a socket with a polygonal cross-section (Fig. 7:a), which is untypical, but on the evidence of its other morphological features it has been determined as a socketed axe. In comparison to the Bogaczewo axes the sockets had smaller diameters and the edges were quite wide. Type III is the most numerous (Fig. 7:b–d; also List 1:19.5, 1:20.2); sockets of these specimens from Sudovian Culture were slimmer and had smaller diameters than the more squat artefacts from the Bogaczewo Culture. Two specimens from Szwajcaria retain seams and traces of hammering of the socket (Fig. 7:d; also List 1:19.2 & 5). One of the axes has a slightly asymmetrical edge with a marked beard (Fig. 7:e) and does not fit in the presented scheme, but fulfils the criteria for type 2 after A. Malonaitis (2008). This may be an indication of the influence from the territory of Lithuania justified by the geographical closeness. The Sudovian socketed axes are usually slimmer and often longer than their Bogaczewo Culture equivalents; besides, their sockets have smaller diameters (2.3–3.6 cm on the outside whereas those of the Bogaczewo Culture are 3.5–4.4 cm). This may be due to the fact that a different, more secure fastening was used, e.g., leather straps or wooden wedges. On the other hand it seems justified to assume that in the Sudovian Culture (in other other words from the beginning of the Younger Roman Period) hafts from some other more durable material were used, allowing sockets with smaller diameters. Axes in the Sudovian Culture are typical of the earlier phases of this cultural unit, i.e., the Younger Roman Period. The functions of socketed axes Based on the discoveries of socketed axes with preserved hafts made in at Danish bog sites from the Pre-Roman and Roman Periods one may assume that also the Balt socketed axes had knee-shaped hafts both unipartite and composite, i.e. two-piece ones (the latter are knowns from Vimose and Hjortspring – Fig. 9:6). The context of discovery of the Scandinavian socketed axes may raise some doubts as to their function (although they may have been used in battle, they were more likely designed for camp work, grubbing, or other purposes which arose during the military expeditions; one should not neglect boat-building here) but the situation of the West Balt circle is more clear. The socketed axes frequently appear in burial assemblages here, including inhumations. The location of the socketed axes may suggest how they were hafted: they had knee-shaped hafts bent at an angle of ca 70–80˚ to the axis of the head. Also, bearded axes were hafted at a similar angle, which suggests the of function of socketed axes and bearded axes. The edge was placed vertically, which excludes the possibility of their being adzes. The case of grave 312 from Marvelė, raj. Kaunas in the Central Lithuanian Group is particularly interesting (Fig. 10:a): the edge of the axe rested next to the shoulder belt type Vidgirdiai, taken off and placed above the head of the deceased. In the Lithuanian material there is evidently a greater correlation between shoulder belts type Vidgirdiai and socketed axes than for battle knives and shafted weapons. Thus it may seem that these belts were used for suspending weapons, including the socketed axes, and the connection with a warrior’s belt would confirm the military use of these axes. Another important premise as to the function comes from the Sudovian cemetery at Szwajcaria, grave S.12 (List 1:19.4). It is important to note the clear spatial division of the grave goods at this site (Fig. 10:b). Household tools (a spoon-bit auger and a sickle-shaped knife) were placed next to the right leg of the skeleton resting supine. The weapons, on the other hand (the head of a shafted weapon, the possible arrowhead and the socketed axe) and tools usually suspended from the belt of the warrior (a knife, a bar-shaped fire steel) had been deposited next to and above the shoulder of the deceased. The location of the socketed axe suggests its symbolic connection with a military activity rather than an agricultural or crafts activity. The West Balt circle is not uniform as regards the contexts in which the socketed axes were found. They have been recorded almost without exception in weapon graves. Whereas in the Bogaczewo and Sudovian cultures they are not accompanied by other tools for woodworking, in the Dollkeim-Kovrovo Culture this happens quite often which was tentatively explained by K. Raddatz by the exceptional role played in the region by woodworking, comparable to the status of smiths in the Celtic and La Tène worlds; in his opinion the Balts from Sambia, Natangia, and Nadrovia would have represents a specific form of Holzkultur. Although it is impossible to establish the purpose of the socketed axes, ultimately, the context of their discovery strongly suggests that indeed they were used as weapons, like the bearded axes.
 
REFERENCES (145)
1.
Ahmedov, I. R., Inventar' mužskih pogrebenij, [w:] Vostočnaâ Evropa v seredine I tysâčeletiâ n.è., Ranneslavânskij mir 9, Moskva, 2007, s. 137–185.
 
2.
Ahmedov, I. R., Korotkie odnolezvijnye meči iz Nikitinskogo mogil'nika na Oke, [w:] O. A. Ŝeglova, M. Kazanski, W. Nowakowski (red.), Germania-Sarmatia II: sbornik naučnyh statii po arheologii posvâŝenyh pamâti M. B. Ŝukina, Kaliningrad-Kursk, 2010, s. 319–341.
 
3.
Almgren, O., Studien über nordeuropäische Fibelformen der ersten nachchristlichen Jahrhunderte mit Berücksichtigung der provinzialrömischen und südrussischen Formen, Mannus-Bibliothek 32, Leipzig, 1923.
 
4.
Antoniewicz, J., Odkrycie grobu rolnika jaćwieskiego z narzędziami produkcji z okresu rzymskiego, RB III, 1962, s. 205–223.
 
5.
Antoniewicz, J., Wyniki badań przeprowadzonych w latach 1958–1960 na cmentarzysku w miejscowości Szwajcaria, pow. Suwałki, Wiadomości Archeologiczne XXIX/2, 1963, s. 166–192.
 
6.
Asadauskas, A., Baltische Waffen der römischen Kaiserzeit im Gräberfeld von Dauglaukis, [w:] C. von Carnap-Bornheim (red.), Beiträge zu römischer und barbarischer Bewaffnung in den ersten vier nachchristlichen Jahrhunderten. Akten des 2. Internationalen Kolloquiums in Marburg a.d. Lahn, 20. bis 24. Februar 1994, Veröffentlichung des Vorgeschichtlichen Seminars Marburg, Sonderband 8, Marburg/Lublin, 1994, s. 393–403.
 
7.
Babeș, M., Die Poienești-Lukaševka-Kultur. Ein Beitrag zur Kulturgeschichte im Raum östlich der Karpaten in der letzten Jahrhunderten vor Christi Geburt, Saarbrücker Beiträge zur Altertumskunde 30, Bonn, 1993.
 
8.
Banytė-Rowell, R., Buža, Z., Proto-Semigallians, I–IV cent., [w:] L. U. Urbaitė (red.), Žiemgaliai / The Semigallians, Vilnius-Riga, 2005, s. 9–22.
 
9.
Banytė-Rowell, R., A Roman Iron Age Warrior from Western Lithuanian Cemetery Baitai Grave 23, [w:] A. Bliujienė (red.), Weapons, Weaponry and Man. In memoriam Vytautas Kazakevičius, Archaeologia Baltica 8, 2007, s. 183–194.
 
10.
Beckmann, B., Die baltischen Metallnadeln der römischen Kaiserzeit, Saalburg Jahrbuch XXVI, 1969, s. 107–119.
 
11.
Behm-Blancke, G., Heiligtümer der Germanen und ihrer Vorgänger in Thüringen. Die Kultstätte Oberdorla. Forschungen zum alteuropäischen Religions- und Kultwesen. Text und Fototafeln, Weimarer Monographien zur Ur- und Frühgeschichte 38/1, Stuttgart, 2003.
 
12.
Behm-Blancke, G.,Heiligtümer der Germanen und ihrer Vorgänger in Thüringen. Die Kultstätte Oberdorla. Forschungen zum alteuropäischen Religions- und Kultwesen. Katalog der Heiligtümer und Funde, Weimarer Monographien zur Ur- und Frühgeschichte 38/2, Stuttgart, 2003.
 
13.
Bemmann, G., Bemmann, J., Der Opferplatz von Nydam. Die Funde aus älteren Grabungen: Nydam-I und Nydam-II. Band 1 – Text, Neumünster, 1998.
 
14.
Bemmann, G., Bemmann, J., Der Opferplatz von Nydam. Die Funde aus älteren Grabungen: Nydam-I und Nydam-II. Band 2 – Katalog und Tafeln, Neumünster, 1998.
 
15.
Bertašius, M., Marvelė. Ein Gräberfeld Mittellitauens. Vidurio Lietuvos aukštaičių II–XII a. kapinynas. Monografija I, Kaunas, 2005.
 
16.
Bezzenberger, A., Das Gräberfeld bei Rominten, Prussia 20 (1895/96), 1896, s. 35–56.
 
17.
Bitner-Wróblewska, A., Netta. A Balt Cemetery in Northeastern Poland, Monumenta Archaeologica Barbarica XII. Warszawa, 2007.
 
18.
Bitner-Wróblewska, A., Ciglis, J., Radiņš, A., Zabytki łotewskie w zbiorach polskich / Latvijas arheoloģiskās senlietas polijas kratuvēs, Rīga, 2005.
 
19.
Böhner, K., Die fränkischen Altertümer des Trierer Landes. Teil 1 –Textband, Germanische Denkmäler der Völkerwanderungszeit B1, Berlin, 1958.
 
20.
Bujack, G., Gräberfeld Fürstenau, Kr. Rastenburg, Prussia 12 (1885/ 86), 1887, s. 143–152.
 
21.
Christensen, A. E., The Roman Iron Age tools from Vimose, Denmark, Acta Archaeologica 76/2, 2005, s. 59–86.
 
22.
Chudziak, W., Kaźmierczak, R., Niegowski, J., Podwodne dziedzictwo archeologiczne Polski. Katalog stanowisk (badania 2006–2009), Toruń, 2011.
 
23.
Cieśliński, A., Zapinki kolankowate z Prussia-Museum czyli o możliwościach przywrócenia do obiegu naukowego zabytków ze zbiorów królewieckich, Światowit II (XLIII), fasc. B, 2000, s. 53–64.
 
24.
Ciglis, J., Katalog / Catalogue, [w:] A. Bitner-Wróblewska (red.), Skarby starożytnej Łotwy / Treasures of Ancient Latvia, Warszawa, 2007, s. 317–550.
 
25.
Crumlin-Pedersen, O., Archaeology and the Sea in Scandinavia and Britain. A personal account, Maritime Culture of the North 3, Roskilde, 2010.
 
26.
Czarnecka, K., Das Grab eines Sklavenhändlers? Zum Fund eines Vorhängeschlosses aus dem baltischen Gräberfeld von Mojtyny (pow. mrągowski) in Masuren, Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 43/3, 2013, s. 397–408.
 
27.
Dahmlos, U., Francisca – bipennis – securis. Bemerkungen zu archäologischem Befund und schriftlicher Überlieferung, Germania 55, 1977, s. 141–165.
 
28.
Déchelette, J., Manuel d’archéologie préhistorique celtique et gallo-romaine. Tome IV – Second age du fer ou époque de La Tène, Paris, 1927.
 
29.
Die neuen Erwerbungen des Antiquariums. Zweites Verzeichniß, Neue Preußische Provinzial-Blätter VI, 1848, s. 408–430.
 
30.
Domański, G., Dorzecze dolnej Nysy Łużyckiej u schyłku starożytności / Das Stromgebiet der unteren Neiße am Ende des Altertums, Wrocław, 2010.
 
31.
Ègarèjčenka, A. A., Zarubineckaâ kul'tura, [w:] V. I. Šadyra, V. S. Vârgej (red.), Arhealogiâ Belarusi 2. Žalezny vek i rannâe sârèdnâvečča, Minsk, 1999, s. 232–289.
 
32.
Ègarèjčenka, A. A.,Kul'tura štryhavanaj keramiki, [w:] V. I. Šadyra, V. S. Vârgej (red.), Arhealogiâ Belarusi 2. Žalezny vek i rannâe sârèdnâvečča, Minsk, 1999, s. 113–173.
 
33.
Engelhardt, C., Thorsbjerg Mosefund, Sønderjydske Mosefund 1, Kjöbenhavn, 1863.
 
34.
Engelhardt, C., Nydam Mosefund 1859–1863, Sønderjydske Mosefund 2, Kjöbenhavn, 1865.
 
35.
Engelhardt, C., Kragehul Mosefund 1751–1865, Fynske Mosefund 1, Kjöbenhavn, 1867.
 
36.
Engelhardt, C., Vimose Fundet, Fynske Mosefund 2, Kjöbenhavn, 1869.
 
37.
Frey, O.-H., Die Entstehung der Situlenkunst. Studien zur figürlich verzierten Toreutik von Este, Römisch-Germanische Forschungen 31, Berlin, 1969.
 
38.
Frey, O.-H., The World of Situla Art, [w:] L. Bonfante (red.), Barbarians of Ancient Europe. Realities and Interactions, Cambridge-New York, 2011, s. 282–312.
 
39.
Gaerte, W., Urgeschichte Ostpreußens, Königsberg i. Pr. 1929,.
 
40.
Ginalski, J., Ostrogi kabłąkowe kultury przeworskiej. Klasyfikacja typologiczna, Przegląd Archeologiczny 38, 1991, s. 53–84.
 
41.
Głosek, M., Broń obuchowa, [w:] A. Kola, G. Wilke (red.), Wczesnośredniowieczne mosty przy Ostrowie Lednickim. Tom II: Mosty traktu poznańskiego (wyniki archeologicznych badań podwodnych prowadzonych w latach 1986–2003), Kraków, 2014, s. 81–94.
 
42.
Godłowski, K., Die Chronologie der germanischen Waffengräber in der jüngeren und späten Kaiserzeit, [w:] C. von Carnap-Bornheim (red.), Beiträge zu römischer und barbarischer Bewaffnung in den ersten vier nachchristlichen Jahrhunderten. Akten des 2. Internationalen Kolloquiums in Marburg a. d. Lahn, 20. bis 24. Februar 1994, Veröffentlichung des Vorgeschichtlichen Seminars Mar- burg, Sonderband 8, Marburg/Lublin, 1994, s. 169–178.
 
43.
Griciuvienė, E., Buža, Z., Selonian Finds, [w:] N. Deveikienė (red.), Sėliai. Baltų archeologijos paroda. Katalogas / The Selonians. Baltic archaeological exhibition. Catalogue, Vilnius-Riga, 2007, s. 111–258.
 
44.
Griciuvienė, E., Grižas, G., Buža, Z., Semigallians, V–XIII cent., [w:] L. U. Urbaitė (red.), Žiemgaliai. Baltų archeologijos paroda. Katalogas / The Semigallians. Baltic archaeological exhibition. Catalogue, Vilnius-Riga, 2005, s. 23–152.
 
45.
Hackmann, A., Die ältere Eisenzeit in Finnland I. Die Funde aus dem fünf ersten Jahrhunderten n. Chr., Helsingfors, 1905.
 
46.
Hagberg, U. E., The Archaeology of Skedemosse II. The Votive Deposits in the Skedemosse Fen and their Relation to the Iron-Age Settlement on Öland, Sweden, Stockholm, 1967.
 
47.
Heynowski, R., Randbemerkungen zum Hortfund von „Schlöben“, [w:] W.-R. Teegen et alii (red.), Studien zur Lebenswelt der Eisenzeit. Festschrift für Rosemarie Müller, Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde 53, Berlin-New York, 2006, s. 49–68.
 
48.
Hoffmann, M. J., Źródła do kultury i osadnictwa południowo-wschodniej strefy nadbałtyckiej w I tysiącleciu p.n.e., Olsztyn, 1999.
 
49.
Hollack, E., Peiser, F. E., Das Gräberfeld von Moythienen, Könisberg i. Pr., 1904.
 
50.
Hübener, W., Waffenformen und Bewaffnungstypen der frühen Merowingerzeit, Fundberichte aus Baden-Württemberg 3, 1977, s. 510–527.
 
51.
Hübener, W., Franziska II. Archäologisches, Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde 9, 1995, s. 472–476.
 
52.
Ilkjær, J., Illerup Ådal. 1. Die Lanzen und Speere. Textband, Jutland Archaeological Society Publications XXV:1, Aarhus, 1990.
 
53.
Iwanicki, P., Juga-Szymańska, A., Horyzont 1. kultury bogaczewskiej w świetle analizy wybranych typów zabytków, [w:] A. Bitner-Wróblewska (red.), Kultura bogaczewska w 20 lat później. Materiały z konferencji, Warszawa, 26-27 marca 2003, Seminarium Bałtyjskie I, Warszawa, 2007, s. 41–71.
 
54.
Jacobi, G., Werkzeug und Gerät aus dem Oppidum von Manching, Die Ausgrabungen in Manching 5, Wiesbaden, 1974.
 
55.
Jahn, M., Die Bewaffnung der Germanen in der älteren Eisenzeit, etwa von 700 v. Chr. bis 200 n. Chr., Mannus-Bibliothek 16, Würzburg, 1916.
 
56.
Jahn, M., Der Reitersporn seine Entstehung und früheste Entwicklung, Mannus-Bibliothek 21, Leipzig, 1921.
 
57.
Jaskanis, J., Sprawozdanie z badań w 1956 r. na cmentarzysku kurhanowym w miejscowości Osowa, pow. Suwałki, Wiadomości Archeologiczne XXV/1–2, 1958, s. 75–98.
 
58.
Jaskanis, J., Szwajcaria. Cmentarzysko bałtyjskie kultury sudowskiej w północno-wschodniej Polsce, Warszawa, 2013.
 
59.
Jonakowski, M., Komplet narzędzi do krzesania ognia w kulturze przeworskiej ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem krzesiw sztabkowatych, [w:] W. Nowakowski (red.), CONCORDIA. Studia ofiarowane Jerzemu Okuliczowi-Kozarynowi w sześćdziesiątą piątą rocznicę urodzin, Warszawa, 1996, s. 93–104.
 
60.
Jovaiša, E., Senojo geležies amžiaus visuomenės struktūros atspindžiai baltų laidojimo paminkluose, Istorija XXXV, 1997, s. 15–47.
 
61.
Juga, A., Rollenkopfnadeln des Typs Beckmann A im westbaltischen Kulturkreis, Archaeologia Lituana 4, 2003, s. 63–81.
 
62.
Juga-Szymańska, A., Cmentarzysko z okresu wpływów rzymskich w Tałtach na Pojezierzu Mazurskim, Barbaricum 7, Warszawa, 2004, s. 91–147.
 
63.
Juga-Szymańska, A., Einige Aspekte der Kontakte zwischen Masuren und Litauen in der römischen Kaiserzeit im Lichte der Nadelforschung, Archeologia Lituana 7, 2006, s. 15–22.
 
64.
Juga-Szymańska, A., Kontakty Pojezierza Mazurskiego ze wschodnią strefą Bałtyku w okresie wpływów rzymskich na przykładzie szpil, Seminarium Bałtyjskie III, Warszawa, 2014.
 
65.
Juga, A., Ots, M., Szymański, P., Über die Vorteile der Bildung einer „didaktischen Kollektion“. Materialien der Bogaczewo-Kultur und Olsztyn-Gruppe in Ajaloo Institut in Tallin (Estland), [w:] A. Bursche, R. Ciołek (red.), Antyk i barbarzyńcy. Księga dedykowana Profesorowi Jerzemu Kolendo w siedemdziesiątą rocznicę urodzin, Warszawa, 2003, s. 218–243.
 
66.
Kaczanowski, P., Klasyfikacja grotów broni drzewcowej kultury przeworskiej z okresu rzymskiego, Klasyfikacje zabytków archeologicznych I, Kraków, 1995.
 
67.
Kazakâvičius, V., Oružie baltskih plemen II-VIII vekov na territorii Litvy, Vilnûs, 1988.
 
68.
Kazanski, M., The Armament, Horsemen’s Accoutrements, and Riding Gear of Long Barrow Culture (Fifth to Seventh Centuries), [w:] A. Bliujienė (red.), Weapons, Weaponry and Man. In memoriam Vytautas Kazakevičius, Archaeologia Baltica 8, 2007, s. 238–253.
 
69.
Kaul, F., The Hjortspring find, [w:] O. Crumlin-Pedersen, A. Trakadas (red.), Hjortspring. Pre-Roman Iron-Age Warship in Context, Ships and Boats of the North 5, Roskilde, 2003, s. 141–185.
 
70.
Kaul, F., The Hjortspring boat and ship iconography of the Bronze Age and Early Pre-Roman Iron Age, [w:] O. Crumlin-Pedersen, A. Trakadas (red.), Hjortspring. Pre-Roman Iron-Age Warship in Context, Ships and Boats of the North 5, Roskilde, 2003, s. 187–207.
 
71.
Kivikoski, E., Die Eisenzeit Finnlands. Bildwerk und Text, Helsinki, 1973.
 
72.
Klindt-Jensen, O., Bronzekedelen fra Brå, Jysk Arkæologisk Selskabs Skrifter III, Aarhus, 1953.
 
73.
Kokowski, A., Die Feuerstahlwerkzeuge der Przeworsk-Kultur, [w:] A. Kokowski (red.), Memoires archeologiques, Lublin, 1985, s. 109–127.
 
74.
Kokowski, A., Krajna Złotowska w młodszym okresie przedrzymskim i w okresie rzymskim, [w:] W. Nowakowski et alii (red.), Goci i ich sąsiedzi na Pomorzu. Materiały z konferencji „Goci na Pomorzu Środkowym”, Koszalin 28–29 października 2005, Koszalińskie Zeszyty Muzealne, seria A – Studia Archaeologica Pomeranica II, Koszalin, 2006, s. 127–141.
 
75.
Kontny, B., Z motyką na Słońce? Możliwości odzwierciedlenia instytucji drużyny w materiale archeologicznym, [w:] A. Bursche, R. Ciołek (red.), Antyk i barbarzyńcy. Księga dedykowana Profesorowi Jerzemu Kolendo w siedemdziesiątą rocznicę urodzin, Warszawa, 2003, s. 253–267.
 
76.
Kontny, B., Powracający temat. Głos w sprawie odkrycia z Żarnowca, [w:] W. Nowakowski et alii (red.), Goci i ich sąsiedzi na Pomorzu. Materiały z konferencji „Goci na Pomorzu Środkowym”, Koszalin 28–29 października 2005, Koszalińskie Zeszyty Muzealne, seria A – Studia Archaeologica Pomeranica II, Koszalin, 2006, s. 143–160.
 
77.
Kontny, B., Foreign influences on the weaponry of Bogaczewo and Sudovian cultures. The case of the shafted weapon, [w:] A. Bliujienė (red.), Weapons, Weaponry and Man. In memoriam Vytautas Kazakevičius, Archaeologia Baltica 8, 2007, s. 117–132.
 
78.
Kontny, B., Dawna technika na nowo odkryta – uwagi na marginesie znaleziska grotu z Łodzi-Łagiewnik, Silesia Antiqua 44, 2008, s. 135–169.
 
79.
Kontny, B., The latest weapons in the Bogaczewo culture, [w:] B. Niezabitowska et alii (red.), The Turbulent Epoch. New Materials from the Late Roman Period and the Migration Period II, Monumenta Studia Gothica V, Lublin, 2009, s. 89–104.
 
80.
Kontny, B., This came out of the swamp. Wolka See revisited: some debatable problems concerning Balt weapons, [w:] B. Kontny (red.), Ubi tribus faucibus fluenta Vistulae fluminis ebibuntur. Jerzy Okulicz-Kozaryn in memoriam, ŚWIATOWIT Suppl. Series B: Barbaricum 11, Warszawa, 2015, s. 307–331.
 
81.
w druku Brothers-in-arms. Balt warriors and their interregional contacts in the Roman and Migration periods (the case of the Bogaczewo and Sudovian cultures), Lietuvos Archeologija 43.
 
82.
Kontny, B., Nowakiewicz, T., Rzeszotarska-Nowakiewicz, A., The Turning Point: preliminary results of underwater research of the former Herrn-See at the vilage of Lubanowo (Western Pomerania, Poland), [w:] V. Žulkus (red.), The Sea and the Coastlands, Archaeologia Baltica 23, 2016, s. 45–57.
 
83.
Kontny, B., Nowakiewicz, T., Rzeszotarska-Nowakiewicz, A., Katalog / Catalogue, [w:] T. Nowakiewicz (red.), Starożytne miejsce ofiarne w jeziorze w Lubanowie (d. Herrn-See) na Pomorzu Zachodnim / Ancient Sacrificial Place in the Lake in Lubanowo (former Herrn-See) in West Po- merania, Warszawa, 2016, s. 122–164.
 
84.
Kontny, B., Nowakiewicz, T., Rzeszotarska-Nowakiewicz, A., Analiza archeologiczna znalezisk z lubanowskiego jeziora / An Archaeological Analysis of the Finds from the Lake in Lubanowo, [w:] T. Nowakiewicz (red.), Starożytne miejsce ofiarne w jeziorze w Lubanowie (d. Herrn-See) na Pomorzu Zachodnim / Ancient Sacrificial Place in the Lake in Lubanowo (former Herrn-See) in West Pomerania, Warszawa, 2016, s. 236–280.
 
85.
Kotowiecki, A., Artifacts in Polish collections made of meteoritic iron, Meteoritics & Planetary Science 39 , Suppl. 8, 2004, s. A151– –A156.
 
86.
Kotzan, F., Das sudauische Gräberfeld in Skomatzko, Kr. Lyck, Unser Masurenland. Heimatbeilage der Lycker Zeitung XII/23, 1936, s. 89–92.
 
87.
Kulakov, V. I., The Amber Lands in the Time of the Roman Empire, B.A.R. Int. Series 1356, Oxford, 2005.
 
88.
Kuśnierz, J., Die Beile in Polen III (Tüllenbeile), Prähistorische Bronzefunde IX/21, Stuttgart, 1998.
 
89.
Kwapiński, M., Korpus kanop pomorskich. Część I – Pomorze, Gdańsk, 1999.
 
90.
Machajewski, H., Die Fibeln der Gruppe V, Serie 8, im östlichen Teil Mitteleuropas, [w:] J. Kunow (red.), 100 Jahre Fibelformen nach Oscar Almgren, Internationale Arbeitstagung 25.–28. Mai 1997 Kleinmachnow, Land Brandenburg, Forschungen zur Archäologie im Land Brandenburg 5, Wünsdorf [wyd. 2002], 1998, s. 187–196.
 
91.
Madyda-Legutko, R., Die Gürtelschnallen der römischen Kaiserzeit und der frühen Völkerwanderungszeit im mitteleuropäischen Bar- baricum, B.A.R. Int. Series 360, Oxford (1986), 1987.
 
92.
Madyda-Legutko, R., Studia nad zróżnicowaniem metalowych części pasów w kulturze przeworskiej. Okucia końca pasa, Kraków, 2011.
 
93.
Malonaitis, A., Geležiniai siauraašmeniai kirviai Lietuvoje. Monografija, Vilnius, 2008.
 
94.
Marciniak, J., Dwa cmentarzyska ciałopalne z okresu rzymskiego w Judzikach i Bargłowie Dwornym w pow. augustowskim, Wiadomości Archeologiczne XVII/1, 1950, s. 47–76.
 
95.
Matešić, S., Der Thorsberger Moor 3: Die militärischen Ausrüstungen. Vergleichende Untersuchungen zur römischen und germanischen Bewaffnung, Schleswig, 2015.
 
96.
Michałowski, A., Budownictwo kultury przeworskiej, Poznań, 2011.
 
97.
Michelbertas, M., Paragaudžio pilkapynas, Vilnius, 1997.
 
98.
Michelbertas, M., Pajuosčio pilkapynas. Monografija, Archaeologia Lituana monografijos, A serija: Lietuvos Laidojimo paminklai 1, Vilnius, 2004.
 
99.
Michelbertas, M., Vitkūnas, M., Baltų karybos senajame geležies amžiuje (I–IV a.) bruožai, [w:] Karo archyvas XVIII. Generolo Jono Žemaičio Lietuvos karo akademija, Vilnius, 2003, s. 8–64.
 
100.
Montelius, O., Dating in the Bronze Age, with special reference to Scandinavia, Stockholm, 1885.
 
101.
Montelius, O., La civilisation primitive en Italie depuis l’introduction des métaux. Première partie. Fibules et Italie Septentrionale, Stockholm, 1895.
 
102.
Moszyński, K., Kultura ludowa Słowian. Tom I. Kultura materialna, Kraków, 1929.
 
103.
Nicklasson, P., Svärdet ljuger inte. Vapenfynd från äldre järnålder på Sveriges fastland, Acta Archaeologica Lundensia 22, Stockholm, 1997.
 
104.
Nicolaysen, N., Langskibet fra Gokstad ved Sandefjord / The Viking-Ship discovered at Gokstad in Norway, Christiania, 1882.
 
105.
Nowakowski, W., Kultura przeworska a zachodniobałtyjski krąg kulturowy, [w:] J. Gurba, A. Kokowski (red.), Kultura przeworska. Materiały z konferencji I, Lubelskie Materiały Archeologiczne VIII/1, Lublin, 1994, s. 373–388.
 
106.
Nowakowski, W., Od Galindai do Galinditae. Z badań nad pradziejami bałtyjskiego ludu z Pojezierza Mazurskiego, Barbaricum 4, Warszawa, 1995.
 
107.
Nowakowski, W., Das Samland in der römischen Kaiserzeit und seine Verbindungen mit dem römischen Reich und der barbarischen Welt, Veröffentlichung des Vorgeschichtlichen Seminars der Philipps-Universität Marburg Sonderband 10, Marburg-Warszawa, 1996.
 
108.
Nowakowski, W., Wojownicy bez mieczy, Z otchłani wieków 61/1–2, 2006, s. 71–76.
 
109.
Nowakowski, W., Masuren in der Römischen Kaiserzeit. Auswertung der Archivalien aus dem Nachlass von Herbert Jankuhn, Studien zur Siedlungsgeschichte und Archäologie der Ostseegebiete 12, Neumünster, 2013.
 
110.
Nørbach, L. Ch., Äxte, [w:] X. Pauli Jensen, L. Ch. Nørbach (red.), Illerup Ådal 13. Die Böger, Pfeile und Äxte, Jutland Archaeological Society Publications XXV:13, Moesgård, 2009, s. 259–288.
 
111.
Nørgård Jørgensen, A., Waffen und Gräber. Typologische und chronologische Studien zu skandinavischen Waffengräbern 520/30 bis 900 n. Chr., Nordiske Fortidsminder B/17, København, 1999.
 
112.
Okulicz, J., Cmentarzysko z okresu rzymskiego odkryte w miejscowości Bogaczewo, na przysiółku Kula, pow. Giżycko, RO I, 1958, s. 47–116.
 
113.
Pieta, K., Das germanische Fürstengrab aus Poprad-Matejovce, [w:] U. von Freeden, H. Friesinger, E. Wamers (red.), Glaube, Kult und Herrschaft: Phänomene des Religiösen im 1. Jahrtausend n. Chr. in Mittel- und Nordeuropa. Akten des 59. Internationalen Sachsensymposions und der Grundprobleme der frühgeschichtlichen Entwicklung im Mitteldonauraum, Bonn, 2009, s. 109–122.
 
114.
Prassolow, J., Schulterriemen vom Typ Balteus Vidgiriai im Verbreitungsgebiet der Samländisch-Natangischen Kultur, Acta Praehistorica et Archaeologica 45, 2013, s. 87–107.
 
115.
Raddatz, K., Der Wolka-See, ein Opferplatz der Römischen Kaiserzeit in Ostpreussen, Offa 49/50 (1992/93), 1993, s. 127–187.
 
116.
Radka, K., Narzędzia rolnicze i gospodarskie, [w:] A. Kola, G. Wilke (red.), Wczesnośredniowieczne mosty przy Ostrowie Lednickim. Tom II – Mosty traktu poznańskiego (wyniki archeologicznych badań podwodnych prowadzonych w latach 1986–2003), Kraków, 2014, 153–175.
 
117.
Radiņš, A., Epoka żelaza / The Iron Age, [w:] A. Bitner-Wróblewska (red.), Skarby starożytnej Łotwy / Treasures of Ancient Latvia, Warszawa, 2007, s. 155–279.
 
118.
Rau, A., Nydam Mose 1. Die personengebundenen Gegenstände. Grabungen 1989–1999, Jysk Arkæologisk Selskab Skrifter 72/1, Moesgård, 2010.
 
119.
Rau, A., Nydam Mose 2. Die personengebundenen Gegenstände. Grabungen 1989–1999, Jysk Arkæologisk Selskab Skrifter 72/1, Moesgård, 2010.
 
120.
Reissinger, G., Die Konstruktionsgrundlagen der Axt. Untersuchungen an neuen und alten Arbeitsäxten, Forstwissenschaftliche Forschungen II, Hamburg/Berlin, 1959.
 
121.
Rodzińska-Nowak, J., Gospodarka żywnościowa ludności kultury przeworskiej, Opera Archaeologiae Iagellonicae 2, Kraków, 2012.
 
122.
Salo, U., Die frührömische Zeit in Finnland, Suomen Muinaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskirja – Finska Fornminnesföreningens Tidskrift 67, Helsinki, 1968.
 
123.
Siegmund, F., Kleidung und Bewaffnung der Männer im östlichen Frankenreich, [w:] A. Wieczorek et alii (red.), Die Franken, Mainz, 1997, s. 691–706.
 
124.
Siemaszko, A., Przytuły, stan. 1. Cmentarzysko kultury bogaczewskiej na Mazurach Wschodnich, mps pracy magisterskiej w Instytucie Archeologii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 2009.
 
125.
Stary, P. F., Zur hallstattzeitlichen Beilbewaffnung des circum-alpinen Raumes, Bericht der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission 63, 1982, s. 17–104.
 
126.
Strobin, A., Osada kultury oksywskiej i wielbarskiej w Lipiankach, gm. Kwidzyn, stan. 3, [w:] M. Fudziński, H. Paner (red.), Kontakty ponadregionalne kultury wielbarskiej. Przemiany kulturowe w okresie wpływow rzymskich na Pomorzu, Gdańsk, 2015, s. 125–193.
 
127.
Szela, A., Żelazna siekierka ze stanowiska kultury przeworskiej w Dzierzgowie, pow. mławski, [w:] W. Nowakowski, A. Szela (red.), Pogranicze trzech światów. Kontakty kultur przeworskiej, wielbarskiej i bogaczewskiej w świetle materiałów z badań i poszukiwań archeologicznych, ŚWIATOWIT Suppl. Series P: Prehistory and Middle Ages XIV, Warszawa, 2006, s. 363–367.
 
128.
Szymański, P., Ceramika z cmentarzysk kultury bogaczewskiej. Próba analizy na podstawie wybranych materiałów, [w:] P. Szymański, A. Żórawska (red.), Materiały do archeologii dawnych ziem pruskich, Barbaricum 6, Warszawa, 2000, s. 109–201.
 
129.
Szymański, P., Z badań nad chronologią i zróżnicowaniem kulturowym społeczności Mazur w późnej starożytności i u progu wczesnego średniowiecza, ŚWIATOWIT Suppl. Series B: Barbaricum 9, Warszawa, 2013.
 
130.
Šimėnas, V., Smailieji kovos peiliai-durklai baltų kraštuose I m. e. tūkstantmečio viduryje, [w:] A. Astrauskas, M. Bertašius (red.), Vidurio Lietuvos archeologija. Etnokultūriniai ryšiai, Vilnius, 1996, s. 27–71.
 
131.
Šmidehel'm, M. H., Arheologičeskie pamâtniki perioda razloženiâ rodovogo stroâ na severo-vostoke Èstonii (V. v. do n.è. – V v. n.è,), Tallin, 1955.
 
132.
Tautavičius, A., Vidurinis geležies amžius Lietuvoje (V–IX a.), Vilnius, 1996.
 
133.
Tokarski, W., Militaria – broń miotająca, obuchowa i drzewcowa, oraz elementy rzędu końskiego i oporządzenia jeździeckiego, [w:] Z. Kurnatowska (red.), Wczesnośredniowieczne mosty przy Ostrowie Lednickim. Tom I – Mosty traktu gnieźnieńskiego, Biblioteka Studiów Lednickich V, Lednica-Toruń, 2000, s. 77–103.
 
134.
Underwood, R., Anglo-Saxon Weapons and Warfare, Stroud, 1999.
 
135.
Valbjørn, K. V., Rasmussen, H. P., Initial work and training, [w:] O. Crumlin-Pedersen, A. Trakadas (red.), Hjortspring. Pre-Roman Iron-Age Warship in Context, Ships and Boats of the North 5, Roskilde, 2003, s. 61–68.
 
136.
Vouga, P., La Tène. Monographie de la station publiée au nom de la commission des fouilles de La Tène, 1923, Leipzig.
 
137.
Waluś, A., Zabytki metalowe kultury lateńskiej z Rembielina, woj. ostrołęckie, Barbaricum 2, Warszawa, 1992, s. 89–101.
 
138.
Waluś, A., Zabytki metalowe kultury kurhanów zachodniobałtyjskich wczesnej epoki żelaza, ŚWIATOWIT Suppl. Series B: Barbaricum 10, Warszawa, 2014, s. 9–197.
 
139.
Wielowiejski, J., Przemiany gospodarczo-społeczne u ludności południowej Polski w okresie późnolateńskim i rzymskim, MS VI, 1960.
 
140.
Wiśniewska, A., Materiały z cmentarzyska w Leśniewie, pow. kętrzyński (dawne Fürstenau, Kr. Rastenburg), Wiadomości Archeologiczne LXII, 2011, s. 119–167.
 
141.
Ziemlińska-Odojowa, W., Sprawozdanie z badań w 1956 r. na cmentarzysku kurhanowym w miejsc. Żywa Woda, pow. Suwałki, Wiadomości Archeologiczne XXV/1–2, 1958, s. 99–106.
 
142.
Ziemlińska-Odojowa, W., Komunikat z badań wykopaliskowych przeprowadzonych na cmentarzysku kurhanowym okresu późnorzymskiego w Żywej Wodzie, pow. Suwałki w roku 1962, Komunikaty Mazursko-Warmińskie 4 (78), 1962, s. 823–824.
 
143.
Ziemlińska-Odojowa, W., Badania w 1962 r. na cmentarzysku z okresu późnorzymskiego w Żywej Wodzie, pow. Suwałki, RB VI (1965), 1966, s. 229–239.
 
144.
Ørsnes, M., Ejsbøl I. Waffenopferfunde des. 4.-5. Jahrhunderts. nach Chr., Nordiske Fortidsminder B/11, København, 1988.
 
145.
Ørsnes, M., Zaumzeugfunde des 1.–8. Jahrh. nach Chr. in Mittel- und Nordeuropa, Acta Archaeologica 64, 1993, s. 183–292.
 
ISSN:0043-5082
Journals System - logo
Scroll to top